ORP as a Predictor of WFGD Chemistry and Wastewater Treatment

Recent studies have shown that system oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) is not only an important factor for predicting wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) absorber chemistry but also may be a predictor of process equipment corrosion and wastewater treatment requirements.

Purge streams of wet flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) units, which are one byproduct of controlling SO2 emissions from coal combustion, are being increasingly subjected to stricter wastewater regulations. Consequently, coal-fired power generators need a method for controlling the operational chemistry of these WFGD units. Upon implementation of a suitable control method, WFGD bleed stream chemistry and flow rate may be optimized, thereby resulting in improved performance of one or more downstream unit operations. A further benefit is reduced reagent and additive costs in various devicies, including the WFGD unit.

One control parameter of interest is the oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of the bleed stream. Much like pH, the measurement of ORP can be taken in real time and integrated with other plant-monitoring data. By incorporating ORP measurements into a process control scheme for limestone forced-oxidized WFGD absorbers—along with various other control variables such as SO2 removal, absorber pH, reagent flow rate and/or one or more reaction stoichiometries, and/or gypsum purity—generators are able to manage the oxidation states of various dissolved metals in the slurry and the potential reemission of mercury. (Also see “How to Measure Corrosion Processes Faster and More Accurately,” May 2009 in the POWER archives and “Mercury Control: Capturing Mercury in Wet Scrubbers, Parts I and II,” July and September 2007, respectively, in the COAL POWER archives—both available at powermag.com.)

A further benefit is control of the corrosion rate of the absorber recirculation tank (ART) and other alloy parts within the system. Many utilities have had ORP excursion events in WFGD wastewater discharge where the ORP readings changed from 150 millivolts (mV) to 300 mV to a reading above 500 mV. Previously, these fluctuations have gone largely unexplained. We have determined that this magnitude of change in ORP, in an ART, due to coal composition and upstream air quality control system (AQCS) effects on WFGD absorber chemistry, can accelerate corrosion.

One potential solution to fluctuating ORP readings is to use integrated process controls designed to tune the upstream operation of the AQCS train to produce consistent inlet flow parameters to the WFGD tower, rather than operating each as an independent process. The control of the ORP level in a WFGD system may produce improved plant operations by reducing the amount of wastewater treatment necessary and helping mitigate mercury reemission.

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Indonesia: Energy Rich and Electricity Poor

Even though it enjoys sizeable coal and natural gas reserves, Indonesia struggles to provide electricity to its growing economy. Geography is its most obvious challenge. Others include evolving international markets and an energy sector that remains highly politicized.

A vast Southeast Asian archipelago of more than 17,500 islands that straddles the equator, Indonesia has become an established and crucial player in the world’s energy markets. It is endowed with some of the world’s largest reserves of fossil fuels, and in 2011, it was the world’s largest steam coal exporter and the eighth-largest natural gas exporter. Yet, today, energy security has become Indonesia’s paramount challenge. And it appears it will be the country’s preoccupation until at least 2020.

At the heart of the issue is that the economy of world’s fourth-most-populous country (after China, India, and the U.S.), with 243 million people, has been booming at an enviable annual rate of 6% since 2010. But so has its domestic energy consumption, which surged by more than 50% over the past decade on the back of an emerging consumer class. This consumption growth has forced the country to halt exports of oil, temper its natural gas exports, and redirect nearly a quarter of produced coal for domestic production of electricity.

On the other hand, compounded by its geographic complexity, without available electricity imports, and reluctant to rely on diminishing domestic oil supplies that fuel off-grid diesel generators on the nation’s 6,000 inhabited islands, the country has been stricken by a critical undersupply of power. Though it is one of Southeast Asia’s biggest economies, it has one of the lowest electrification rates in the region. This dilemma is underscored by forecasts suggesting that between 2009 and 2019, national electricity demand will increase by an average 9% per year and reach 328.3 TWh in 2020—more than double last year’s figure of 162.4 TWh.

The government’s solution is to seek massive power capacity increases, and it recently embarked on an ambitious plan to add at least 55.3 GW of new capacity and at least 49,299 kilometers of new transmission lines within the next decade. Can Indonesia bypass a number of hurdles and resolve its energy dilemma?

It is important to note that the country has been long-steeped in a festering electricity crisis characterized by rolling blackouts lasting, on a national average, about 3.8 hours per day, according to 2009 figures. As Dr. Mika M. Purra of the Center on Asia and Globalization at the National University of Singapore points out, power shortages have been routine since Indonesia’s independence from the Netherlands in 1949. Moreover, Purra asserts that while modernization of the power sector has been a specific goal of the government since 1998, a “historical narrative reveals repetitive attributes that have continuously stalled any serious efforts to reform the sector, thus causing significant harm to the state, its economy and the general public.” ±±One pervading issue is that the governance structure is based on the dominance of state-owned enterprises, and until recently the government functioned on a constitutional mandate as the sole provider of electricity for the nation. Under the authoritarian regimes of former Presidents Sukarno (1945–1967) and Suharto (1967–1998), the principles of bureaucratization were reinforced and did little to change the structure of state-owned power entity Persero-Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), which held an iron-grip monopoly on the country’s generation, transmission, and distribution.

Only after the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98 and the fall of Suharto’s regime did fundamental changes in the power sector come, Purra says. The new era of democratization of political process achieved, among its most notable changes, passage of Energy Law No. 30 in 2009 (Figure 1). The landmark law allows independent power producers (IPPs) to generate and sell electricity to end users in the Indonesian market, ending PLN’s 60-year-long monopoly as the single electricity supplier in Indonesia.

1. Major players. In a power market regulatory upheaval, Indonesia’s Energy Law No. 30, passed in 2009, allowed independent power producers (IPPs) to begin generating and selling electricity. But state-owned power company Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN) generated about 75% of all power in 2012, remains heavily subsidized, holds a monopoly on transmission and distribution grids, and functions as the system operator. This chart shows the major players in Indonesia’s electricity system and how PLN generates revenues and receives subsidies. Source: Differ Group, “The Indonesian Electricity System—A Brief Overview,” differgroup.com/analysis, 2012

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Fewer Rain Forests Mean Less Energy for Developing Nations, Study Finds

That is the conclusion of a group of experts whose findings, released Monday, run counter to the conventional understanding of deforestation’s impact on watersheds.

For years, scientists and engineers have noted an increase in river flows when the trees along streams are removed. The water in the soil, which would otherwise have been taken up by the tree roots and sent into the atmosphere, instead moves directly into streams and rivers.

At the same time, large areas of tropical forest actually create rain clouds as moisture from their leaves evaporates. So the elimination of swaths of these forests decreases rainfall. Cut down enough trees, the scientists argue, and the indirect impact of lost rainfall outweighs the direct impact of removing trees.

The study, published by The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, predicts that extensive deforestation will leave less water in the rivers to generate hydropower from projects like Belo Monte, which is under construction on the Xingu River in Brazil and will be the world’s third largest hydropower complex.

The Belo Monte project, whose massive scope and impact on the landscape have led to opposition, is expected to generate at least 4,400 megawatts of electricity, the study said. The project’s overall capacity would be more than 11,000 megawatts; because of wide variations in seasonal flows of the Xingu River, the lower output is what developers guarantee.

But the study warns that by 2050 as much as 40 percent of this power could be lost because of the reduced rainfall caused by regional deforestation.

Loss of tropical rain forests in the Amazon basin, Central Africa, Indonesia and other parts of the world has been a pressing environmental issue for two decades, but the debate has been framed largely in two ways. First, that the loss of the forests accelerates worldwide climate change be removing a large carbon sink that absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Second, that the deforestation destroys the livelihoods of indigenous communities.

The idea that deforestation could reduce rainfall and thus economically harm a country like Brazil, which gets more than 80 percent of its energy from hydropower, is less familiar news.

Noting the established connection between the loss of trees and an increase in river flow, Claudia M. Stickler, the paper’s lead author, said researchers in the Amazon basin “saw effects where the conventional wisdom did not hold true.”

“They removed so much forest that it reduced rainfall and reduced the stream flow,” she added.

A co-author, Daniel C. Nepstad, who like Dr. Stickler works at the Amazon Institute for Environmental Research in Brasília, said rain forests create rain because they “are in the equatorial sun, evaporating a huge amount of water that goes up through the stems and into the leaves and out into the atmosphere.” That moisture feeds rain clouds.

In some eastern and southern tributaries of the Amazon, he added, “the cycle has changed.” The Xingu River, he said, is already near a tipping point where the increased flows caused by the loss of tree roots will be nullified by the overall loss of rainfall.

The authors concluded that “as tropical rain forest nations turn increasingly to hydropower to meet growing demands for ‘green’ electricity, it is important” that planners take into account the links between forest cover and stream flows.

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Construction of Disputed Turkish Dam Continues

“These are live,” he said, as he toggled between images of men and machines swarming over a dozen different building sites of the Ilisu Dam project.

The feed goes to the prime minister’s office in Ankara, Mr. Dundar, general manager of the project, said last week. “The prime minister can watch every point of construction 24 hours a day, minute by minute, so he is informed of our progress at all times. He has set the target for completion for 2014, and we mean to make that date.”

About 1,450 workers are laboring around the clock to complete the Ilisu Dam, one of the most controversial public works projects in recent history, by the middle of next year. That would be exactly five years after European lenders pulled out of the €1.1 billion, or $1.5 billion, project in July 2009, citing concerns about environmental impact, resettlement policies and the destruction of cultural treasures. Undeterred, Ankara quickly raised domestic financing and resumed work in 2010.

“We have now completed 53 percent of the project, and we will complete the rest on time,” said Mr. Dundar, who is also regional director of the state hydraulic works. “We have no funding problems whatsoever, we work day and night, and all relevant agencies are in constant coordination.”

On the construction site, about 40 kilometers, or 25 miles, from the Syrian border and 70 kilometers from Iraq, the roar of machinery drowned out the rushing waters of the Tigris, which has been diverted from its natural bed to flow through three diversion tunnels and emerge roiling and foaming into a new concrete basin.

The surrounding mountain ridges bristled with military sentry posts and surveillance equipment guarding the construction site against the Kurdish rebels roaming the area.

Trucks and earth movers hauled loads of limestone, basalt and clay onto the rising body of the dam, which is to attain a height of 141 meters, or 460 feet, when complete. The crest of the dam will be 2.3 kilometers long, with a volume of 24 million cubic meters of earth and rock.

One-third of that is done, Mr. Dundar said, with the rest scheduled to be finished within the year. “Meanwhile, construction of the spillway and the power plant are going ahead according to plan,” he added.

If the project stays on track, the Ilisu Dam will begin to impound water next year. Filling the reservoir could take anywhere from 5 to 11 months, Mr. Dundar said, depending on the season in which it is begun. “We think the reservoir will be filled in 2015,” he added.

The project appeared to hit a snag last month when Turkey’s highest administrative court ruled that a decree issued by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan last year to accelerate work on the dam was in part null and void.

The court declared invalid that part of the decree that declared all infrastructure projects connected to the dam to be exempt from environmental impact assessment requirements on the grounds that plans for the dam were drawn up before the relevant law came into effect in 1993. Opponents of the project were jubilant and staged a rally in Ankara, calling for the Ilisu construction site to be shut down.

Emre Baturay Altinok, the lawyer who lodged the complaint on behalf of environmentalists, said by telephone from Ankara this month: “It is unlawful to continue work on the project without environmental impact assessments. The construction site must be closed and sealed.”

Mr. Dundar disagreed with that interpretation of the ruling, which he said would not impede work on the dam.

“The ruling does not even remotely have anything to do with stopping the project,” he said. “It is merely about applying the environmental impact assessment regulations, which we are now doing anyway.”

The state hydraulic works authority has lodged an objection to the ruling, asking for clarification of certain terms, he said. “But in any case,” he added, “the final judgment will definitely not stop the project.”

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Proposed Dam Presents Economic and Environmental Challenges in Alaska

The Alaska Energy Authority is planning to build a 735-foot, $5.2 billion structure on the Susitna River in a largely empty south-central part of the state, which is watered by runoff from the arc of the Alaska Range. The dam, designed to generate up to 600 megawatts of electricity, would create a new power supply for more than two-thirds of the state’s population.

But in Alaska, where natural energy resources and wildlife are both foundations of the economy, the proposed dam presents twin conundrums.

One is economic: which is better, creating a reliable source of hydroelectricity and weaning some of the state off natural gas, or building a spur off a proposed pipeline to bring gas from the North Slope to the populated region from Fairbanks to the Kenai Peninsula? Or both? The other is environmental: what serves the environment best, replacing natural gas-fired electricity with hydroelectricity, which is free of greenhouse gas emissions, or keeping the Susitna watershed untrammeled and avoiding the risks involved in changing the dynamics of a major salmon stream?

For environmentalists, the choice is uncomfortable. “It is a bit of a hard choice for the environmental community to have to make. Do we choose a big natural gas project or do we choose a big dam?” said Corinne Smith, a Nature Conservancy official in Alaska responsible for the study of the Matanuska-Susitna Valley where the dam would be located.

While energy is a foundation of the Alaskan economy, it is most visible in the federal arena. The big political fights over energy have involved federal lands, like the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge or the National Petroleum Reserve. Discussions over how Alaskans should generate their own energy are less frequent and lower-key.

But now, the prospect of building the new dam is being drawn into a debate in the Legislature over a proposal much more familiar to environmental groups: the plan to build a $45 billion natural gas pipeline from the North Slope to the Midwest, perhaps including a spur that would carry some gas to south-central Alaska, where regional power plants are already fueled by gas.

Having this gas provide reliable electricity at stable and affordable prices, said an analyst of both projects, would make the dam superfluous and avoid its environmental impacts. But of course, there are significant environmental impacts associated with the 800-mile proposed pipeline.

Can the state afford both? Key legislative leaders think so, even though the oil revenues that made Alaska rich are inexorably dwindling along with the oil bounty of the North Slope.

“We’re lucky we’re financially healthy,” said Representative Charisse Millett, co-chairwoman of the special Energy Committee in Alaska’s House of Representatives. “We don’t want to pick one project — we want to go down parallel paths.”

Moreover, the decades-old dam proposal, dusted off by the Legislature and Gov. Sean Parnell in 2010, would help the state abide by its policy that Alaska obtain half its energy from renewable sources by 2025. The dam legislation passed without a single dissenting vote.

Both the dam and the pipeline appeal to the state’s appetite for supersize ventures, said Steve Colt, an environmental economist at the University of Alaska Anchorage.

“We’re always looking for the next boom and we’ve been remarkably lucky in coming across one thing after another,” he added. “People were thinking the gas pipeline would be the next big thing. Now, it’s the most expensive hydroelectric project ever built in North America.”

Construction of the dam, according to Emily Ford, a spokeswoman for the Alaska Energy Authority, would provide an essential new source of electricity and a hedge against a surge in energy prices. Oil price increases, of course, benefit the state in its role as an exporter of North Slope oil, but hurt regions in the state dependent on oil-fueled electricity and heating.

“We were looking for solutions to provide an affordable and stable power source” for more than 500,000 people in the Railbelt, the south-central region from Fairbanks to the Kenai Peninsula, Ms. Ford said.

Opponents of the dam, however, say that the declining supply of natural gas feeding most of the power plants in the Railbelt could be replaced with supplies form the North Slope, or from untapped resources in the gas-rich areas of the Cook Inlet.

Cook Inlet, at the mouth of the Susitna River, is one of the world’s richest salmon fishing grounds. Susitna is among the four biggest state rivers used by salmon species when spawning.

As Chris Wood, president of the environmental group Trout Unlimited, said, “The fact is that this dam, in ways we don’t know, would change the flow of the Susitna.” In late July last year, for the first time, a reduced population of Chinook salmon resulted in the partial closure of the area for fishing.

The impact of large dams on salmon runs and the riverine environment has kept large hydroelectric projects elsewhere in the country off the federal list of renewable energy sources — but not off Alaska’s.

The concern for Mr. Wood and local opponents is not that the dam will block salmon runs, as large dams in the West have. The site of the Susitna project is far upriver, beyond the reach of all but the hardiest fish.

Instead, the issue is the way the dam will alter the river’s rates of flow. Richard Leo, president of Susitna Dam Alternatives, argued that “in the wintertime, the dam is going to be releasing flow many times greater than normal.” Juvenile salmon, he said, “will no longer be able to hover near the edge of the river, they will literally have to swim for their lives.”

Ms. Ford, the spokeswoman for the energy agency, said that all the major issues, from stream flows to fish behavior, are being studied in an extensive review process that will take at least two more years. In 2015, if things go as planned, the state will ask federal regulators for a license, she said, and construction could start in 2017.

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Plans to Harness Chinese River’s Power Threaten a Region

But the Nu’s days as one of the region’s last free-flowing rivers are dwindling. The Chinese government stunned environmentalists this year by reviving plans to build a series of hydropower dams on the upper reaches of the Nu, the heart of a Unesco World Heritage site in China’s southwest Yunnan Province that ranks among the world’s most ecologically diverse and fragile places.

Critics say the project will force the relocation of tens of thousands of ethnic minorities in the highlands of Yunnan and destroy the spawning grounds for a score of endangered fish species. Geologists warn that constructing the dams in a seismically active region could threaten those living downstream. Next month, Unesco is scheduled to discuss whether to include the area on its list of endangered places.

Among the biggest losers could be the millions of farmers and fishermen across the border in Myanmar and Thailand who depend on the Salween, as the river is called in Southeast Asia, for their sustenance. “We’re talking about a cascade of dams that will fundamentally alter the ecosystems and resources for downstream communities that depend on the river,” said Katy Yan, China program coordinator at International Rivers, an advocacy group.

Suspended in 2004 by Wen Jiabao, then the prime minister, and officially resuscitated shortly before his retirement in March, the project is increasing long-simmering regional tensions over Beijing’s plans to dam or divert a number of rivers that flow from China to other thirsty nations in its quest to bolster economic growth and reduce the country’s dependency on coal.

According to its latest energy plan, the government aims to begin construction on about three dozen hydroelectric projects across the country, which together will have more than twice the hydropower capacity of the United States.

So far China has been largely unresponsive to the concerns of its neighbors, among them India, Kazakhstan, Myanmar, Russia and Vietnam. Since 1997, China has declined to sign a United Nations water-sharing treaty that would govern the 13 major transnational rivers on its territory. “To fight for every drop of water or die” is how China’s former water resources minister, Wang Shucheng, once described the nation’s water policy.

Here in Bingzhongluo, a peaceful backpacker magnet, those who treasure the fast-moving, jade-green beauty of the Nu say the four proposed dams in Yunnan and the one already under construction in Tibet would irrevocably alter what guidebooks refer to as the Grand Canyon of the East. A soaring, 370-mile-long gorge carpeted with thick forests, the area is home to roughly half of China’s animal species, many of them endangered, including the snow leopard, the black snub-nosed monkey and the red panda.

Clinging improbably to the alpine peaks are mist-shrouded villages whose residents are among the area’s dozen or so indigenous tribes, most with their own languages. “The project will be good for the local government, but it will be a disaster for the local residents,” said Wan Li, 42, who in 2003 left behind his big-city life as an accountant in the provincial capital, Kunming, to open a youth hostel here. “They will lose their culture, their traditions and their livelihood, and we will be left with a placid, lifeless reservoir.”

As one of two major rivers in China still unimpeded by dams, the Nu has a fiercely devoted following among environmentalists who have grown despondent over the destruction of many of China’s waterways. The Ministry of Water Resources released a survey in March saying that 23,000 rivers had disappeared entirely and many of the nation’s most storied rivers had become degraded by pollution. The mouth of the Yellow River is little more than an effluent-fouled trickle, and the once-mighty Yangtze has been tamed by the Three Gorges Dam, a $25 billion project that displaced 1.4 million people.

For many advocates, the Nu has become something of a last stand. “Why can’t China have just one river that isn’t destroyed by humans?” asked Wang Yongchen, a well-known environmentalist in Beijing who has visited the area a dozen times in recent years.

Opponents say it is no coincidence that the project was revived shortly before the retirement of Mr. Wen, a populist whose decision to halt construction was hailed as a landmark victory for the nation’s fledgling environmental movement. Although he did not kill the project, Mr. Wen, a trained geologist, vowed it would not proceed without an exhaustive environmental impact assessment.

No such assessment has been released. Given the government’s goal of generating 15 percent of the nation’s electricity from non-fossil fuel by 2020, few expect environmental concerns to slow the project, even if the original plan of 13 dams on the Nu has for now been scaled back to 5. “Building a dam is about managing conflicts between man and nature, but without a scientific understanding of this project, it can only lead to calamity,” said Yang Yong, a geologist and an environmentalist.

Patrick Zuo contributed research.

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Climate Change Will Cause More Energy Breakdowns, U.S. Warns

The blackouts and other energy disruptions of Hurricane Sandy were just a foretaste, the report says. Every corner of the country’s energy infrastructure — oil wells, hydroelectric dams, nuclear power plants — will be stressed in coming years by more intense storms, rising seas, higher temperatures and more frequent droughts.

The effects are already being felt, the report says. Power plants are shutting down or reducing output because of a shortage of cooling water. Barges carrying coal and oil are being delayed by low water levels in major waterways. Floods and storm surges are inundating ports, refineries, pipelines and rail yards. Powerful windstorms and raging wildfires are felling transformers and transmission lines.

“We don’t have a robust energy system, and the costs are significant,” said Jonathan Pershing, the deputy assistant secretary of energy for climate change policy and technology, who oversaw production of the report. “The cost today is measured in the billions. Over the coming decades, it will be in the trillions. You can’t just put your head in the sand anymore.”

The study notes that 2012 was the hottest year on record in the contiguous United States, and last July was the hottest month in the United States since record keeping began in 1895.

The high temperatures were accompanied by record-setting drought, which parched much of the Southwest and greatly reduced water available for cooling fossil fuel plants and producing hydroelectric power. A study found that roughly 60 percent of operating coal plants are in areas with potential water shortages driven by climate change.

Rising heat in the West will drive a steep increase in demand for air conditioning, which has already forced blackouts and brownouts in some places. The Energy Department’s Argonne National Laboratory found that air conditioning demand in the West will require 34 gigawatts of new electricity generating capacity by 2050, equivalent to the construction of 100 power plants. The cost to consumers will exceed $40 billion, the lab said.

Mr. Pershing, who joined the Department of Energy this year after serving for several years as the State Department’s deputy special envoy for climate change, said much of the climate disruption was already baked into the system from 150 years of rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. He said that the nation must continue efforts to reduce climate-altering emissions, but that the impact of those efforts would not be felt for years. In the meantime, Mr. Pershing said, cities, states and the federal government must take steps to adapt and improve their resiliency in the face of more wicked weather.

President Obama referred to these vulnerabilities in his speech on climate change at Georgetown University on June 25. He said Hurricane Sandy, which devastated the Northeast in October, had provided a wake-up call, if one was needed after the run of climate-related disasters in recent years.

“New York City is fortifying its 520 miles of coastline as an insurance policy against more frequent and costly storms,” Mr. Obama said. “And what we’ve learned from Hurricane Sandy and other disasters is that we’ve got to build smarter, more resilient infrastructure that can protect our homes and businesses, and withstand more powerful storms. That means stronger sea walls, natural barriers, hardened power grids, hardened water systems, hardened fuel supplies.”

After Sandy, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg of New York commissioned a study of how to protect the city against storms. The report called for nearly $20 billion in investments to enhance resilience, roughly equivalent to the costs of responding to the hurricane. The study said that unless the city took precautions, the next storm of similar magnitude could cost the city $90 billion.

The new Department of Energy report does not provide any firm estimates of expected costs and provides no specific recommendations for immediate action, much of which would be the responsibility of the companies that produce and transport all forms of energy.

But the authors do suggest a series of steps to reduce vulnerability. Power plants and oil drillers should use less water and recycle what they use. Electricity providers should harden their transmission grids and build emergency backup systems. Operators of hydroelectric dams should improve turbine efficiency. And residential and commercial energy users should find ways to reduce demand.

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